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Outdoor Adventure Education (OAE) are programs designed to enhance leadership and personal growth through challenging experiences in nature, including rock climbing, sailing, and kayaking. Participants in OAE often report that they were transformed by their experiences, but little is known about how such transformations occur. D'Amato and Krasny interviewed 23 former OAE participants to explore how their significant experiences enhanced their personal growth and to a lesser degree their pro-environmental behaviors. By interpreting the data through the lens of transformative learning theory, these researchers found that participants attribute the most meaningful experiences to "living in pristine nature, experiencing a different lifestyle, being part of the course community, and dealing with the intensity and challenges of the course." Interview results also suggest that OAE courses "might integrate personal growth with instrumental learning to better foster environmental behaviors post-course."

SOURCE: D'Amato, L. G., and M. E. Krasny. 2011. Outdoor adventure education: applying transformative learning theory to understanding instrumental learning and personal growth in environmental education. Journal of environmental education 42:237-253.

The Children & Nature Network summarizes several scholarly reports on direct experiences in nature contributing to youth development, health, school achievements, problem-solving skills, creativity, self-discipline, and other individual-level outcomes. Access full-text reviews:

Charles, C. (2007). Children & Nature Network research and studies (Vol. 1).
http://www.childrenandnature.org/downloads/C&NNRsrchVol_01.pdf

Senauer, A. (2007). Children & Nature Network research and studies (Vol. 2).
http://www.childrenandnature.org/downloads/C&NNResearchV2.pdf

Other reports on children & nature:
http://www.childrenandnature.org/publications

Situated on the shore of the Chesapeake Bay, the NorthBay Adventure Center includes various outdoor and indoor recreational facilities, and offers a mix of environmental education, adventure and character development activities. Researchers have evaluated the impact of five-day NorthBay residential programs on urban (mostly African American) and rural middle-school students. NorthBay staff administered pre/post-experience and follow-up (three-months delayed) surveys to 1313 students. The authors found a significant positive short-term effect on students’ character development and leadership; environmental responsibility, and attitudes toward school. “Three month delayed posttests indicate retention of significant gains in character development and leadership and environmental responsibility, while gains in school-related outcomes faded. Urban students responded more positively to the NorthBay program than did students from suburban and rural areas.”

SOURCE: Stern, M. J., Powell, R. B., & Ardoin, N. M. (2011). Evaluating a constructivist and culturally responsive approach to environmental education for diverse audience. The journal of environmental education, 42(2), 109-122.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00958961003796849

Researchers suggest that in the past outdoor experiences in environmental education were valued because of their connection to behavioral change. This study analyzes the history and current outdoor education practices in Scandinavian countries. Researchers conclude that direct encounters with the natural environment contribute to: “(1) an experience-based meaning of nature; (2) a relational ethical perspective; (3) the addition of a fourth perspective to sustainable development; (4) human ecology in practice; (5) sensing the quality of a simple life; and (6) democracy, identity and dwelling.”

SOURCE: Sandell, K., & Öhman, J. (2010). Educational potentials of encounters with nature: reflections from a Swedish outdoor perspective. Environmental education research, 16(1), 113-132.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13504620903504065

Researchers examined 150 projects evaluating outdoor learning. Outdoor learning includes residential programs, field trips, summer schools, and other experiential programs. Researchers have concluded that, “…fieldwork, properly conceived, adequately planned, well taught and effectively followed up, offers learners opportunities to develop their knowledge and skills in ways that add value to their everyday experiences in the classroom.”

SOURCE: Dillon, J., Rickinson, M., Teamey, K., Morris, M., Young Choi, M., Sanders, D., et al. (2006). The value of outdoor learning: evidence from research in the UK and elsewhere. School science review, 87(320), 107-111.
http://www.outlab.ie/forums/documents/the_value_of_school_science_review_march_2006_87320_141.pdf